Skip to main content
Logo image

PreTeXt Sample Book Abstract Algebra (SAMPLE ONLY)

Thomas W. Judson, Isaac Newton (Editor)

Section 2.1 Cyclic groups

Often a subgroup will depend entirely on a single element of the group; that is, knowing that particular element will allow us to compute any other element in the subgroup.
🔗

Example 2.1.1. An Infinite Cyclic Subgroup, Modular Addition.

Suppose that we consider \(3 \in {\mathbb Z}\) and look at all multiples (both positive and negative) of 3. As a set, this is
\begin{equation*} 3 {\mathbb Z} = \{ \ldots, -3, 0, 3, 6, \ldots \}\text{.} \end{equation*}
It is easy to see that \(3 {\mathbb Z}\) is a subgroup of the integers. This subgroup is completely determined by the element 3 since we can obtain all of the other elements of the group by taking multiples of 3. Every element in the subgroup is “generated” by 3.
🔗
🔗

Example 2.1.2. An Infinite Cyclic Subgroup, Multiplication of Rational Numbers.

If \(H = \{ 2^n : n \in {\mathbb Z} \}\text{,}\) then \(H\) is a subgroup of the multiplicative group of nonzero rational numbers, \({\mathbb Q}^*\text{.}\) If \(a = 2^m\) and \(b = 2^n\) are in \(H\text{,}\) then \(ab^{-1} = 2^m 2^{-n} = 2^{m-n}\) is also in \(H\text{.}\) By Proposition 1.3.8, \(H\) is a subgroup of \({\mathbb Q}^*\) determined by the element 2.
🔗
🔗

Proof.

The identity is in \(\langle a \rangle \) since \(a^0 = e\text{.}\) If \(g\) and \(h\) are any two elements in \(\langle a \rangle \text{,}\) then by the definition of \(\langle a \rangle\) we can write \(g = a^m\) and \(h = a^n\) for some integers \(m\) and \(n\text{.}\) So \(gh = a^m a^n = a^{m+n}\) is again in \(\langle a \rangle \text{.}\) Finally, if \(g = a^n\) in \(\langle a \rangle \text{,}\) then the inverse \(g^{-1} = a^{-n}\) is also in \(\langle a \rangle \text{.}\) Clearly, any subgroup \(H\) of \(G\) containing \(a\) must contain all the powers of \(a\) by closure; hence, \(H\) contains \(\langle a \rangle \text{.}\) Therefore, \(\langle a \rangle \) is the smallest subgroup of \(G\) containing \(a\text{.}\)
🔗
🔗

Remark 2.1.4.

If we are using the “+” notation, as in the case of the integers under addition, we write \(\langle a \rangle = \{ na : n \in {\mathbb Z} \}\text{.}\)
🔗
🔗
For \(a \in G\text{,}\) we call \(\langle a \rangle \) the cyclic subgroup generated by \(a\text{.}\) If \(G\) contains some element \(a\) such that \(G = \langle a \rangle \text{,}\) then \(G\) is a cyclic group. In this case \(a\) is a generator of \(G\text{.}\) If \(a\) is an element of a group \(G\text{,}\) we define the order of \(a\) to be the smallest positive integer \(n\) such that \(a^n= e\text{,}\) and we write \(|a| = n\text{.}\) If there is no such integer \(n\text{,}\) we say that the order of \(a\) is infinite and write \(|a| = \infty\) to denote the order of \(a\text{.}\)
🔗

Example 2.1.5. Generators of a Finite Cyclic Group.

Notice that a cyclic group can have more than a single generator. Both 1 and 5 generate \({\mathbb Z}_6\text{;}\) hence, \({\mathbb Z}_6\) is a cyclic group. Not every element in a cyclic group is necessarily a generator of the group. The order of \(2 \in {\mathbb Z}_6\) is 3. The cyclic subgroup generated by 2 is \(\langle 2 \rangle = \{ 0, 2, 4 \}\text{.}\)
🔗
🔗
The groups \({\mathbb Z}\) and \({\mathbb Z}_n\) are cyclic groups. The elements 1 and \(-1\) are generators for \({\mathbb Z}\text{.}\) We can certainly generate \({\mathbb Z}_n\) with 1 although there may be other generators of \({\mathbb Z}_n\text{,}\) as in the case of \({\mathbb Z}_6\text{.}\)
🔗

Example 2.1.6. A Cyclic Group of Units.

The group of units, \(U(9)\text{,}\) in \({\mathbb Z}_9\) is a cyclic group. As a set, \(U(9)\) is \(\{ 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 \}\text{.}\) The element 2 is a generator for \(U(9)\) since
\begin{align*} 2^1 & = 2 \qquad 2^2 = 4\\ 2^3 & = 8 \qquad 2^4 = 7\\ 2^5 & = 5 \qquad 2^6 = 1\text{.} \end{align*}
🔗
🔗

Example 2.1.7. A Group That is Not Cyclic.

Not every group is a cyclic group. Consider the symmetry group of an equilateral triangle \(S_3\text{.}\) The subgroups of \(S_3\) are shown in Figure 2.1.8. Notice that every subgroup is cyclic; however, no single element generates the entire group.
🔗
🔗
Figure 2.1.8. Subgroups of \(S_3\)
🔗

Proof.

Let \(G\) be a cyclic group and \(a \in G\) be a generator for \(G\text{.}\) If \(g\) and \(h\) are in \(G\text{,}\) then they can be written as powers of \(a\text{,}\) say \(g = a^r\) and \(h = a^s\text{.}\) Since
\begin{equation*} g h = a^r a^s = a^{r+s} = a^{s+r} = a^s a^r = h g\text{,} \end{equation*}
\(G\) is abelian.
🔗
🔗
🔗
PrevTopNext